Sea cucumbers are one of the marine animals which are important as human food informant, particularly in some parts of Asia [ 7 ]. They are normally soft-bodied echinoderms comprising a diverse group of compromising, elongate, worm-like organisms, with a coriaceous skin and gelatinous body, looking like a cucumber. Habitually, they tend to live on the sea floor in cryptic seas [ 8 ]. Most of the presently available functional foods and curative agents are derived either directly or indirectly from naturally occurring sources, specially, the planetary food plants and marine species [ 2 – 4 ]. Due to the rich oceanic biodiversity, marine organisms are valuable sources of alimentary foods angstrom well as typify novel reservoirs of biologically active agent components, in detail bioactive peptides, and disinfectant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents [ 4 – 6 ]. Besides, the independent trade for the food purposes, there are possibly hundreds of thousands of sea cucumbers that are marketed for aquarium industry ; however information on species, their demand quantities and source countries are rarely available [ 12 ]. According to the FAO ball-shaped statistics report on ocean cucumber, Indonesia is the top most trepang exporter cosmopolitan. About 40–80 percentage of the trepangs are exported to China, Hong Kong SAR, with early markets being Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan Province of China, Singapore, Malaysia and Australia [ 67, 68 ]. The average annual prices of indonesian trepang exported from South Sulawesi during 1996 to 2002 were between USD 15.06/kg to USD 144/kg [ 67 ], however, these prices varied ( and still change ) greatly depending upon the species and the product specifications. The data from INFOFISH Trade News regarding price trends show that among the high-valued species, sandfish is at the top. INFOFISH Trade News describes only the price for one of the temperate species namely A. japonicus with rates about double than the grade sandfish. The retail price of A. japonicus has observed a dramatic increase over the time, for case, the retail price for one kilogram ( kilogram ) in 1960, amounting Renminbi ( RMB ) 18, was adenine high gear as RMB 500/kg in 1980 and RMB 3,000/kg ( approximately USD 400 ) in 2004 [ 70 ]. The species/type, the dried animal size, the extent of dryness ( of the process products ) ampere well as the commercialize period of the year, are the important factors in determining the price of sea cucumbers products. For case, normally prices are 20 to 30 % higher just before the chinese Lunar New Year [ 69 ]. It is widely accepted that ranking choice products are those from Japan, South Africa, the Pacific seashore of South America and Australia while those derived from the Philippines, Indonesia, and China are of lower timbre owing to the composing of species and the deficient march techniques employed [ 68, 69 ]. According to Bruckner et alabama. [ 12 ], in 2000 and 2001, 28 countries exported sea cucumbers to Taiwan Province of China while about 50 percentage imports to Singapore were from China Hong Kong SAR, with Tanzania, Papua New Guinea and Madagascar being the other main suppliers. Two-way trade is besides in rehearse among the three independent exporting centers. China Hong Kong SAR imports highest in1991 ( 7885 deoxythymidine monophosphate ) were minimum in 1999 ( 2922 t ). For the period between 2000 and 2005, average imports were at around 4626 t. On the early hand, consumption of sea cucumbers in China Hong Kong SAR, peaked in 1991 ( 4456 t ), was decreased from an average value of 3812 thyroxine between 1991 and 1994 to a charge of 999.9 deoxythymidine monophosphate between 1995 and 2005. The countries engaged in the trade of sea cucumbers, worldly concern over, by and large export trepang to one of the given three chief hubs, from where they are re-exported by and large to chinese consumers worldwide. Almost 90 % of the sum imports of trepang are contributed by China Hong Kong SAR, China, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan Province of China, Republic of Korea and Japan. According to estimates, approximately 80 % of the overall external barter is intended primarily for China, Hong Kong SAR [ 12, 68, 69 ]. For exemplar, for the period between 1996 and 2000, 87 % of re-exports of trepang from China Hong Kong SAR were destined for China [ 69 ]. globally, sea cucumber trade specifically intended for the food market has been largely controlled by China Hong Kong SAR ( Special Administrative Region ), Singapore and Taiwan Province of China. China Hong Kong SAR have the largest entrepot controlling with contribution of 80 percentage of the global import-export ocean cucumber trade wind which might be attributed to the ability of the regions to serve as a corridor for goods to the backwoods of mainland China [ 68, 69 ]. traditionally, the lower prize products have much been shipped to China Hong Kong SAR for their re-export to China [ 11, 68 ]. With the exception of China, where a major fortune of sea cucumber production is from aquaculture ( ca. 10,000 thymine dry weight/annum ), in other asian countries, the output is derived chiefly, if not entirely, from capture fisheries [ 68 ]. One of the chief problems contributing towards the depletion of ocean cucumber resources is overfishing. Excluding Japan, other countries of Asia are normally deficient in management practices to conserve and sustain their sea cucumber fisheries. Most importantly, the two major producing countries, the Philippines and Indonesia are lacking particular management measures required for conversation of sea cucumbers. Besides, miss of accurate statistics, habitat loss, global warm and excessive and uncontrolled uses are some of the other presently prevailing threats to sustaining the sea cucumber fisheries resources [ 68 ]. The highest holothuroidea capture landings in the 2000s were yielded by Indonesia, followed by the Philippines. On average basis, about 47 percentage of the populace ’ mho Holothuroidea landings per annum, producing an average of 2572 thymine ( wet weight ) catches per year, were contributed together by the Philippines and Indonesia during 2000 and 2005. Japan as the largest capture fishery producer of the temperate species ( A. japonicus ), produced an average of 8101 t per year between the period 2000 and 2005. The FAO ( Food and Agriculture Organization ) sea cucumber capture statistics are normally given on wet weights basis, therefore, the data for landings of ocean cucumbers in Southeast Asia seems to be lowball [ 68 ]. This prompts the necessitate to verify whether the data recorded were sincerely dried and not the wet weight basis. There is miss of official data regarding the major export destinations for most of the sea cucumber land, however, it is broadly assumed that majority of the catches are supplied to fulfill the Asian ( east and southeast asian regions ) market beche-de-mer demands. Of the 52 commercially exploited species, most are tropical and sub-tropical species belonging to the families of Holothuridae and Stichopodidae, including the genus Actinopyga, Bohadschia, Stichopus and Holothuria [ 68 ]. Most of the sea cucumber exports from the Latin America and the Caribbean regions are from Peru ( 26.1 % ) followed by Ecuador ( 25.9 % ), Chile ( 14.1 % ) and Cuba ( 10.1 % ). About 14.0 % of ocean cucumber exports are derived from countries where either this fishery is banned such as Panama and Costa Rica or have no proper record ( Colombia ) [ 63 ]. According to the FAO ( FAO, 2007 ) report, sea cucumbers catches data is available only for Ecuador, Mexico, Chile and Nicaragua with a total contribution of 6035 thyroxine ( wet weight unit ) for the period from 1988 to 2005 ( ) [ 61, 63 ]. A hearty share of the world catch ( ca. 9000 thyroxine moisture system of weights per year ) is contributed by the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere ( catches being continue by one species namely Cucumaria frondosa ). In this context, African and indian Ocean regions, with sea cucumber catches contribution in the range of 2000–2500 t per year, are less outstanding, while ocean cucumber catches is very low in Caribbean and latin american regions ( < 1000 thyroxine per year ) [ 61, 62 ]. Increasing attention has been focused on evaluating trepang trade in sexual intercourse to the sustainable management of harvestable sea cucumber resources for imparting socio-economic benefits of this industry to the local anesthetic fishing communities [ 62, 63 ]. There are several leading works from Madagascar that reveal an increasing growth in development of sea cucumber aquaculture and trepang deal, due to applying appropriate management strategies [ 64 – 66 ]. Sea cucumbers fishing in Indonesia and elsewhere in Asia is an important segment contributing to improve the economic position of the Small Islands and local coastal fishing communities ; therefore the population of ocean cucumbers should be managed appropriately for achieving excellence and sustainable economic and ecological benefits [ 62, 63, 67, 68 ]. A multitude of sea cucumber species are being harvested across the regions but the number of commercially exploited species varies broadly. According to research, the highest number ( 52 and 36 ) of species is exploited in the Asia and Pacific regions, respectively, of path due to the full-bodied marine diversity in these regions. little information is available on the biological, ecological and population aspects of most of the commercial species, consequently, in several cases, specially in distant areas, these are marketed without an attested taxonomic identification. With esteem to the selling statistics of beche-de-mer international deal, quantitative data are available on fisheries catches. According to the updated trade and catch data available, Asia and the Pacific are the two top sea cucumbers producing regions. Based on the conversion factor employed for calculation of the dry/wet weight of sea cucumbers, it is estimated that the combined harvestable catches for the Asia and Pacific regions are in the range of 20,000 to 40,000 t per year [ 61 ]. The species, having remarkable commercial value, for example, Holothuria nobilis ( bootleg teatfish ), Holothuria fuscogilva ( white teatfish ) and Holothuria scabra ( beaked salmon ) are by and large distributed in the tropical waters of the Western Pacific and indian Oceans. The species with average market value include Actinopyga miliaris ( pilot whale ), Actinopyga echinites ( brownfish ) and Thelenota ananas ( bristly redfish ) while Holothuria fuscopunctata, Holothuria atra, Stichopus chloronotus and Stichopus variegates are some of those with little commercial value. A little, however growing and emergent fishery, for Isostichopus fuscus, is recorded in the eastern Pacific regions of Galapagos and Ecuador. Temperate fisheries are divided into, eastern Pacific coasts of North America for Parastichopus californicus and P. parvimensis ( Alaska, Oregon, California and Washington, USA, and British Columbia, Canada ), western Pacific regions for Stichopus japonicus and a humble fishery in the Atlantic for Cucumaria frondosa ( Maine, USA, and Quebec, Canada ) [ 12 ]. An crucial and a common feature of subtropical and tropical fisheries, is to target multi-species in shallow water system ( up to 50 m depth ) environments. On the other hand, most temperate fisheries are characterized by individual species ocean cucumbers, specially, belonging to Holothuridae and Stichopodidae families which comprise an imperative part of a multi-species invertebrate fishery prevailing in the Indo-Pacific region a hanker as 1000 years for customary and traditional subsistence uses [ 12 ]. By the late 1980s, sea cucumber fisheries had quickly grown and expanded due to the growing beche-de-mer-related international market, supported by continuing demand of these organisms for aquaculture and biomedical research programs. For case, earth over sea cucumber market trends reveal a considerable increase in the trade of sea cucumbers, both in terms of numeral of species and output concede. In accession to its large expansion in the traditional regions, sea cucumber fisheries have expanded to a considerable order of magnitude even in non-traditional fishing areas such as the Galapagos, Mexico and the North America [ 3 – 7 ]. The total total of soon existing ocean cucumber species is about 1250 ; however, recently, some modern species have besides been studied from the Indo-Pacific Ocean, being popular as a focus on for rich biodiversity of Holothuroidea. Besides, there are several undescribed larger sea cucumber species living in shallow water which have not however been systematically identified because there are rather a small count of sea cucumber taxonomists [ 12 ]. The common and scientific names of some important species of sea cucumbers along with their distribution are given in. Sea cucumbers are an significant component of the marine ecosystem. They are distributed in all oceans the world over, generally living near corals, rocks or ocean weeds in warm shallow waters [ 53, 56 ]. Most of the harvestable species of sea cucumbers, which are chiefly targeted as beche-de-mer, belong to two families and seven genus of the Aspidochirotids including Bohadschia, Holothuria ( Holothuridae ), Actinopyga, Isostichopus, Stichopus, Parastichopus and Thelenota ( Stichopodidae ) and one family and genus of the Dendrochirotids : Cucumaria ( Cucumariidae ) [ 12 ]. Looking at the oral tentacles is the most common means to separate the subclasses of sea cucumbers. For exercise, sea cucumbers of subclass Dendrochirotacea have 8–30 oral tentacles while those belonging to Aspidochirotacea may have 10–30 shield like or leaflike oral tentacles. On the early side, members of Apodacea may contain up to 25 pinnate or simpleton oral tentacles [ 15 ]. adenine far as the anatomy and distribution is concerned, the length of ocean cucumbers is normally 10–30 curium ; however some small species of fair 3 millimeter length, and the largest reaching approximately 1 megabyte, have besides been recorded. They are soft and cylindrical-bodied echinoderms which preferably live as dense populations on the deep sea floor and use their tentacles for feeding purposes [ 8, 15, 55 ]. Sea cucumbers belong to the phylum Echinodermata, entail that, they are spiny-skinned, under the class Holothuridea [ 7, 52, 53 ]. The name holothuroid was given by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle ( “ holos : whole ” and “ thurios : rushing ” ). The scientific mention “ Cucumis marimus ” which means “ ocean cucumber ” was coined by Pliny ( an invertebrate taxonomist ) [ 53 ]. It was further divided into three subclasses namely Dendrochirotacea, Aspidochirotacea, and Apodacea. There are six orders under these subclasses, named as Aspidochirotida, Apodida, Dactylochirotida, Dendrochirotida, Elasipodida and Molpadiida [ 15, 53, 54 ]. Sea cucumbers contain an concern combination of valuable amino acids ; glycin being the major component ( ca. 5.57–12.5 g/100 gigabyte wet weight ) in about all species identified. Glutamic acerb ( 4.69–7.31 g/100 g wet weight ), aspartic acerb ( 3.48–5.06 g/100 gigabyte wet weight ), alanine ( 2.95–5.77 g/100 g wet weight ) and arginine ( 2.71–4.95 g/100 gravitational constant wet weight ) are outstanding among others [ 23 ]. Another crucial sport of sea cucumber ’ s amino acids composition is its low lysine/arginine ratio in concert with high grade of essential amino acids ( EAAs ) due to bearing of considerable measure of threonine, tyrosine and phenylalanine [ 23 ]. Hypocholesterolemic effects of low lysine/arginine proportion of a protein are good documented. The total amino acids ( TAAs ) message ( 33.32–54.13 g/100 gigabyte wet weight ) [ 23 ] as against fatso acids visibility, is not so much varied among species, but both of these nutrients arsenic well as polysaccharides and glycosides are higher in intestine and respiratory parts than the soundbox walls. interestingly, the EAAs/TAAs, EAAs/non-essential amino acids ratios of the intestine and respiratory apparatus are closer to ideal practice of FAO/WHO [ 71 ] suggesting a high alimentary value of sea cucumbers. Proximate writing of fresh sea cucumbers may differ to a wide extent depending upon the species, seasonal worker variations and feeding regimes. distinctive datum as reported in the literature reveal the contents of moisture, protein, fatty, ash, and carbohydrates for bracing ocean cucumbers to vary from 82.0 to 92.6, 2.5 to 13.8, 0.1 to 0.9, 1.5 to 4.3 and 0.2 to 2.0 %, respectively [ 9 ]. Commercially processed ( dried ) sea cucumbers are full-bodied beginning of unrefined protein in comparison to most of the seafoods so far in use. Wen et alabama. [ 23 ] investigated the chemical and nutritional composition of eight common commercially processed sea cucumber species and found the protein contents to be within the scope of 40.7 to 63.3 %. The test sea cucumbers in the given survey [ 23 ], except Thelenota anax and Actinopyga caerulea have identical low levels of fat ( 0.3–1.9 % ) while the ash message is notably high ( 15.4–39.6 % ). According to Chen [ 22 ], the amply dried ocean cucumber material may contain protein subject vitamin a high as 83 % and is sold as nutraceutical in table or capsulated forms [ 22 ]. Although there are many culture and harvestable sea cucumber species, but around 20 species are reported with relatively high economic and food prize. Sea cucumbers, normally processed into a dry product know as “ bêche-de-mer ”, are valued as an important seafood, particularly in asian countries. commercially, the product “ bêche-de-mer ” can be graded into low, medium or high economic value depending upon several aspects such as species, appearance, abudance, color, smell, thickness of the body rampart, and market trends and demands [ 23 ]. They are widely consumed by people in China, Japan and South Asia [ 70 ]. As a food commodity and medicative remedy, ocean cucumbers are celebrated as bêche-de-mer or trepang over many centuries. They are valued as a alimentary dish among the aboriginal people of South East Aisa [ 7, 20 ]. From nutritional view-point, sea cucumbers are ideal tonic and have an impressive visibility of high-value nutrients such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 ( vitamin b1 ), Vitamin B2 ( vitamin b2 ), Vitamin B3 ( niacin ), and minerals, particularly calcium, magnesium, cast-iron and zinc [ 22, 53 ]. recently, a research group, working at Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan, has discovered three novel compounds ( ganglioside molecular species, HLG-1, HLG-2 and HLG-3 ) in a ocean cucumber namely Holothuria leucospilota. The newly studied molecules were able to stimulate nerve cell growth in rat cells in the lab. The researchers revealed that exchangeable molecules are besides portray in nine other species of the sea cucumber, vitamin a well as the eggs of sea urchins [ 116 ]. A number of crucial bioactive compounds identified in different species of sea cucumber are given in while the available chemical structures for some of these are depicted in. Sea cucumbers are rich in glycosides [ 95 ], particularly triterpene glycosides which are proven to have fungicidal and anticancer activities [ 96 – 106 ]. Sea cucumbers are besides known to have impressive amounts of lectins [ 107, 108 ], cerberosides [ 109, 110 ], glycosaminoglycans [ 111 – 113 ], sterols and omega-6 fatty acid sterols and omega-6 fatty acid and omega-3 fatty acid fatso acids ( EPA and DHA ) [ 45, 114, 115 ]. Another class of compounds is saponins, normally identified as holothurins, from sea cucumber. The structural features of these compounds are quite comparable to those of the bioactives from ganoderma, ginseng, and other medicinally popular tonic herb [ 22 ]. They have displayed a across-the-board spectrum of biological effects such as hemolytic, cytostatic, antineoplastic, anticancer and anticancer activities [ 24, 90 – 93 ]. besides, one holocene study revealed that sea cucumber dietary saponins have shown hindrance effect in alleviating the orotic acid-induced fatty liver-colored in rats [ 94 ]. Another group of running substances namely, mucopolysaccharides and chondroitins, have besides been identified in sea cucumbers. It has been seen that people suffering from arthritis and connective tissue disorders, are frequently barren of these compounds. As such, sea cucumber-derived chondroitin sulfate can be exploited as a nutraceutical to ease joint-pain and arthritis like disorders [ 84 ]. It is for this reason that about 3 g/day serve of the dry ocean cucumbers is medicinally effective in reducing arthralgia to a significant flush [ 22 ]. The mechanism of action of chondroitin sulfate is considered to be like to that of glucosamine sulfate ; the latter colonial is presently in function as therapeutic agentive role for easing osteoarthritis [ 85 – 87 ]. Among PUFA of sea cucumbers, arachidonic acerb ( AA, C20:4 n-6 ) is detected to be the principal part in about all species with relatively higher amounts reported for tropical species [ 78, 79 ]. medicative benefits of AA as precursor of eicosanoids and major component of cell membrane phospholipids are well recognized. It is known to play a potential function in growth, and blood clot procedure leading to wound healing [ 80, 81 ]. This supports the ocean cucumbers hanker meter use as a traditional remedy for burns and cuts in Asia [ 77 ]. bearing of considerable come of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and decosahexaenoic acerb ( DHA ) in several species, particularly in tropical and abyssal sea cucumbers [ 78, 89 ] is medicinally crucial as these two long chain fatty acids are associated with the reduce incidence of coronary thrombosis heart diseases and sealed cancers [ 82, 83 ]. interestingly, in contrast to vegetable oils which largely have fatso acids with flush carbon paper numbers, a considerable measure of fatty acids with odd carbon paper numbers such as C15:0, C17:0, C19:0, C21:0 and C23:1 is besides detected in sea cucumber fatty acidic profiles [ 23 ]. typically, palmitic acid ( C16:0 ), eicosenoic acerb ( C20:1 n-9 ) and arachidonic acid ( C20:4 n-6 ) are the dominant allele components among impregnate fatso acids ( SFA ), monounsaturated fatso acid ( MUFA ) and polyunsaturated fatso acids ( PUFA ), respectively in about all species of sea cucumbers identified [ 23 ]. The measure of SFA, MUFA and PUFA among assorted species is reported to be varied widely. For example, in a analyze [ 23 ] conducted on eight common species of ocean cucumbers namely Stichopus herrmanni, Thelenota pineapple, Thelenota anax, Holothuria fuscogilva, Holothuria fuscopunctata, Actinopyga mauritiana, Actinopyga mauritiana, Actinopyga caerulea and Bohadschia argus, the contents of SFA, MUFA anad PUFA varied from 31.23 to 61.60 %, 27.00 to 45.64 % and 5.10 to 23.13 %, respectively. The species of sea cucumbers studied in the given work [ 23 ], in line to those from abyssal, tropical and temperate regions [ 78, 79 ] have shown higher amounts of SFA and MUFA but lower contents of PUFA. Variations of fatty acerb components among species of different sea cucumbers angstrom well as from different regions is apprehensible and might be linked to factors such as diet, natural habitat climatic conditions and post harvest processing regimes, specially the dry temperature [ 72 ]. For commercial purposes, once the ocean cucumbers are caught, they normally are gutted, boiled and then dried [ 12 ]. According to Fredalina et alabama. [ 77 ], fatty acids of sea cucumber lipid fractions, are the samara components, liable for tissue repair and wreathe bring around properties of this nautical animal. fatso acids profile in terms of myristic ( C14:0 ), palmitic ( C16:0 ), stearic ( C18:0 ), linoleic ( C18:2 ), arachidic ( C20:0 ), eicosapentaenoic ( C20:5, EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acerb ( C22:6, DHA ) of the lipid fractions, extracted from ocean cucumber ( Stichopus chloronotus ) using methanol, ethyl alcohol, phosphate buffer saline ( PBS ), and distill water, varied largely in relation back to the four extraction systems. The PBS extracts showed relatively higher levels of EPA ( 25.69 % ) compared to 7.84 % in distill water, 18.89 % in ethyl alcohol, and lone 5.83 % in methanol extracts. amazingly, DHA is stage in larger amount ( 57.55 % ) in water extracts, as against alone 1.20–3.63 % in others while it is not detected in ethyl alcohol extracts. interestingly, C16:0 is efficaciously extracted in ethyl alcohol ( 20.18 % ) and methanol ( 20.82 % ), while 12.55 % in PBS and alone 2.20 % in water system extracts. subsequently, oleic acerb ( C18:1 ) is only established in PBS ( 21.98 % ) and water extracts ( 7.50 % ) [ 77 ]. There are a series of other bioactive and antiagent substances in sea cucumbers, such as triterpene glycosides, enzymes, amyloses, fatso acids, cytotoxins, etc. with potential capabilities to increase immunity, resist tumor and cruor, protect nerve tissue, rest pain and resist air plant ampere well as contribute to immunopotentiation, anticancer and anticoagulation [ 71, 76 ]. considerable amounts of phenolics and free root scavengers have besides been determined in sea cucumbers [ 34, 46 ]. Athunibat et alabama. [ 34 ] investigated that aqueous excerpt derived from sea cucumbers ( Holothuria leucospilota, Holothuria scabra, Stichopus chlorontus ) contain importantly higher amounts of full phenolics ( 4.85–9.70 mg french acid equivalent ( GAE ) /g dw ) than the organic extracts ( 1.53–2.90 magnesium GAE/g dw ). similarly, in another survey by Mamelona et aluminum. [ 46 ], full pheols and flavonoids contents in different parts including digestive tract, gonads, muscles, and respiratory apparatus of sea cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, varied from 22.5 to 236.0 mg GEA/g dw, and 2.9 to 59.8 milligram rutin equivalent/g dw, respectively. Acetonitrile-rich fractions and ethyl acetate rayon extracts from digestive tract and water-rich fractions and water system extracts from muscles and respiratory apparatus showed the highest total of sum phenols. Among extracts and fractions, acetonitrile-rich fractions exhibited the highest capacity of phenols for all the test tissues. american samoa far as the sum flavonoids is concerned, the water-rich and acetonitrile-rich fractions from gonads, while water extracts from digestive track and ethyl acetate rayon extracts from brawn and digestive nerve pathway have highest levels, among others. A high come of good-quality protein in ocean cucumber is linked with its beneficial effects on serum triglyceride levels [ 72 ]. Sea cucumber protein, particularly produced from body wall, is rich in glycine, glutamic acerb and arginine. Glycine can stimulate product and release of IL-2 and B cell antibody and frankincense contributes to enhancing phagocytosis. Glycine and glutamic acid are essential components for cells to synthesize glutathione which can stimulate activation and proliferation of NK cell. Arginine can enhance cell immunity by promoting energizing and proliferation of T-cell. Due to these amino acid components, sea cucumbers have noteworthy function in immune regulation [ 73 ]. A major proportion ( ca. 70 percentage ) of sea cucumber body wall protein is comprised of collagen. Collagen is recognized as a valued component in the connection tissues, due to its utility and specific distribution [ 47, 74 ]. It can be further converted into gelatin by boiling, to act as a functional bioactive kernel [ 75 ]. During the past three to four decades many efforts have been devoted to isolating numerous biologically active novel compounds from marine sources. many of such naturally occurring compounds are of capital interest for likely drug development vitamin a good as an ingredient of new leads and commercially successful products for respective industrial applications, particularly, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, functional foods and nutraceuticals [ 4 ]. Sea cucumbers are one of the likely marine animals with high food and medicative value. The medicative properties of these animals are ascribed to the bearing of running components with predict multiple biological activities .
5. Biological Activities and Medicinal Health Functions
In addition to having a senior high school alimentary value, sea cucumbers have retentive been recognized in the family music system of asian countries. An impressive range of medicative health functions, for exercise, nourishing the body, tonifying kidney, moistening dryness of the intestines, treatment of stomach ulcers, asthma, high blood pressure, rheumatoid arthritis and hoist healing have been associated with sea cucumber [ 22, 127 – 129 ]. Most importantly, the potential medicative benefits and multiple biological properties of sea cucumbers are now gaining recognition in modern biomedical research. Scientists believe that ocean cucumber extracts are beneficial for human health in unlike ways and can help reduce the growth of cancer cells [ 34, 130 ]. In position of the medicative potential, modern food and pharmaceutical diligence is keenly interest to develpe some running foods and nutraceuticals from different parts of ocean cucumbers. recently, several pharmaceutical firms in Australia initiated the use of sea cucumbers to prevent excitement [ 9 ]. A variety of sea cucumber-derived food and pharmaceutical products are available in South Pacific and Asian markets, including China, Japan, Malaysia and Indonesia [ 9, 77 ]. In Asia and America dry tablets prepared from the consistency wall of sea cucumbers are consumed as nutraceuticals for physiologic benefit. In Malaysia, boiled peel extracts are consumed as a tonic to treat Asthma, high blood pressure, rheumatoid arthritis and scent cuts and burns [ 9, 77 ]. In summation to health medicative uses, interestingly, there is much demand for sea cucumber as aphrodisiac food to improve intimate performance [ 9, 77 ]. Described below are the important biological attributes and medicative benefits of sea cucumbers as given in the literature.
5.1. Anti-Angiogenic
Sea cucumber has emerged as a potential source of anti-angiogenic and anti-tumor agents of medical matter to. late studies reveal the anticarcinogenic potential of ocean cucumber-derived bioactives against certain cancers. Tian et aluminum. ( 2005 ) [ 24 ] examined in vivo and in vitro anti-angiogenic and anti-tumor functionalities of a newly identified intensify philinopside E ( PE ) from sea cucumber. They assessed through an in vitro test angiogenesis prohibition potential of the compound using different assays such as proliferation, adhesiveness, migration, tube-formation and apoptosis in PE-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cell ( HUVECs ) and human microvascular endothelial cells ( HMECs ). Furthermore, they used in vivo, chorioallantoic membran ( CAM ) assays to examine the PE-inhibition natural process on the physiologic angiogenesis. Besides, the researchers used westerly spot proficiency to appraise the efficacy of PE on the vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) attributing biosignal in HMECs. The results revealed that PE inhibited well the proliferation of HMECs and HUVECs, IC50 2.22 ± 0.31 μM and 1.98 ± 0.32 μM, respectively and induce endothelial cellular telephone apoptosis at amounts less than 2 μM, showing a concentration-dependent suppression of cell migration and cellular telephone adhesion arsenic well as metro formation in HUVECs and HMECs. similarly, in an in vivo CAM assay, PE ( 5 nM/egg ) showed suppression of spontaneous angiogenesis, and exhibited growth prohibition well in experimental mouse ( sarcoma 180 and hepatoma 22 ) models. These results show that PE can be explored as an efficient anti-angiogenic agent, for suppressing the active ( phosphorylated ) forms of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors involved in the endothelial cell survival, adhesiveness, proliferation and migration. In another discipline, the anti-angiogenic action of a newly isolated sulfated saponin namely Philinospide A, from sea cucumber ( Pentacta quadrangulari ), was tested against angiogensis and tumor growth by Tong et aluminum. ( 2005 ) [ 38 ] in a series of in vitro and in vivo models. The researchers noted that sea cucumber-derived Philinospide A exhibits anti-angiogenic effects in homo microvascular endothelial cells ( HMECs ) suggesting its uses as a promise anticancer agent. Besides, it possesses double cytotoxic and antiangiogenic consequence, which might be attributed to its inhibitory likely for sense organ tyrosine kinases ( RTKs ). Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate is another compound, identified in the flower and consistency wall of ocean cucumber. This compound offers good antiangiogenic bodily process, comparable with that of plus control, hydrocortisone/heparin, and even higher than shark cartilage condroitin-6-sulfate [ 130 ] .
5.2. Anticancer/Antiproliferative
Sea cucumbers are reported to contain several compounds with anticancer and antiproliferative properties. The anticancer natural process of three triterpene glycosides, intercedensides A, B, and C isolated from the ocean cucumber ( Mensamaria intercedens ) has been evaluated by Zou et aluminum. [ 37 ]. The apart triterpene glycosides were structurally elucidated using chemical analyses and NMR and ESIMS spectroscopic approaches. According to the results of the study [ 37 ], the given triterpene compounds exhibited cytotoxicity against human tumor cell lines and therefore could serve as potential anticancer agents. One of the compounds, intercedenside A besides showed estimable antineoplastic function against mouse S180 sarcoma and mouse Lewis lung cancer. The hot water extracts from sea cucumber ( Stichopus japonica ) were tested for their effect on the proliferation and H2O2 susceptibility of human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells [ 131 ]. The growth of Caco-2 cells was significantly inhibited by the educe treatments. The tested extracts showed concentration-dependent cytotoxity to Caco-2 cells. Cell wrong by sea cucumber press out was apparent above 1 mg/mL. In summation, coadministration of sea cucumber extracts intensified the H2O2 cytotoxicity. Another survey revealed the isolation of sphingoid bases of ocean cucumber ( Stichopus variegatus ) cerberosides along with their cytotoxic effects against human colon cancer cell lines [ 48 ]. The isolate cerebrosides were examined for their chemical structure using mass spectroscopic information and found to have a branched C17 to C19 alkyl chain coupled with 1 to 3 doubling bonds imparting characteristic feature to sea cucumbers sphingoid in comparison to those from mammals. Sea cucumber sphingoid bases showed strong cytotxic activity against cancer cells ( DLD-1, WiDr and Caco-2 cells ) reducing their viability in a concentration-dependent manner. This activeness was comparable to that of sphingosine-treated cells. The tested compounds induced a geomorphologic change as condense chromatin fragments a good as increased the caspase-3 activity, supporting the fact that sphingoid bases can reduce the cell viability by causing apoptosis. It was suggested that sea cucumber-derived bioactive sphingolipids could serve as a functional dietary components to reduce incidence of colon cancer. Silchenko et alabama. ( 2007 ) [ 95 ] besides studied the anticancer bodily process of three newly triterpene oligoglycosides, okhotosides B1, B2, and B3, isolated from sea cucumber ( Cucumaria okhotensis ), along with the sleep together compounds frondoside A, cucumarioside A2-5, and koreoside A. They used 2-D NMR and MS to elucidate the structures of okhotosides B1-3 on the footing of spectroscopic data established. Their consequence showed that compounds 1–3 were moderately toxic against HeLa tumor cells, but Frondoside A showed more cytotoxic effect against THP-1 and HeLa tumor cellular telephone lines. similarly, a fresh triterpenoid, frondoside A, derived from an Atlantic sea-based sea cucumber species namely Cucumaria frondosa has been reported to show an effective growth inhibitory function against homo pancreas cancer cells. The proliferation inhibition potential was followed by the order of magnitude of tag apoptosis. The tested compound ( Frondoside A ) is supposed to induce apoptosis by means of mitochondrial and shower activation pathways [ 132, 133 ]. Althunibat et aluminum. ( 2009 ) [ 34 ] examined the effects of aqueous and constituent extracts from three species ( Holothuria leucospilota, Holothuria scabra, Stichopus chloronotus ) of sea cucumber, on the growth of two human cancer cells : A549 ( homo non-small lung carcinoma ) and C33A ( cervical cancer cells ) using MTT assay. Of the extracts tested, lone S. chloronotus-derived infusion showed antiproliferative activity against the tested cancer cellular telephone lines. conversely, aqueous educe ( AE ) from S. chloronotus exhibited more toxicity against C33A cells ( IC50 = 10.0 μg/mL ) than A549, whereas AE produced from H. leucospilota and H. scabra revealed no celebrated action on the growth of the cancer cells within the concentrations limits employed. On the other handwriting, sea cucumber extracts produced by the organic solvents inhibited the growth of both the cell lines ( A549 and C33A ) to varying degrees. The organic extract ( OE ) from H. scabra species offered greater antiproliferative carry through against A549 and C33A cells with IC50 values, 15.5 μg/mL and 3.0 μg/mL, respectively. furthermore, The OE from S. chloronotus showed more cytotoxicity against C33A cells ( IC50 = 6.0 μg/mL ) but little action against A549 cells ( IC50 = 21.0 μg/mL ). Antiproliferative and anticancer functionality of sea cucumber extracts might be ascribed to the presence of considerable amounts of full phenols and flavonids which are valued as effective antioxidants to protect from oxidative stress and degenerative diseases including certain cancers [ 34 ]. Janakiram et alabama. ( 2010 ) [ 124 ] appraised the chemopreventive effects of frondanol A, a glycolipid isolated from sea cucumber ( Cucumaria frondosa ), against azoxymethane-induced fink colon carcinogenesis. They used ACF ( aberrantcolonic crypt focus ) as an efficacy marker to assess the proliferation construction levels during this cogitation. Besides, the growth-inhibitory and apoptotic effects of frondanol A over concentration rate of 10–120 μg/mL using HCT-116 cellular telephone line were besides studied. Sea cucumber-derived frondanol A exhibit identical well growth-inhibitory and apoptotic activities suggesting the uses of this animal as an ingredient for functional foods and nutraceuticals. Two sulfate triterpene glycosides namely holothurin A ( HA ) and 24-dehydroechinoside A ( DHEA ), have been identified in sea cucumber species ( Pearsonothuria graeffei ) by Zhao et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 134 ]. Both of these glycosides exhibited goodly influence on metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed that both HA and DHEA significantly suppressed the construction of the matrix metallo-proteinase-9 ( MMP-9 ) arsenic well as enhanced the construction level of weave inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 ( TIMP-1 ). TIMP-1 is a key governor for MMP-9 energizing. According to the data of western blot analyses, both HA and DHEA greatly suppressed the expression of VEGF ( vascular endothelial growth component ). Both HA and DHEA treatment well reduced the adhesion of human hepatocellular liver-colored carcinoma cells ( HepG2 ) to both matrigel and human endothelial cells ( ECV-304 ) and besides inhibited HepG2 cell migration and invasion in a concentration-dependent modality. additionally, HA discussion down regulated the formula flat of NF-κB, which might be linked with antimetastatic action of triterpene glycosides derived from Pearsonothuria graeffei .
5.3. Anti-Coagulant
anticoagulant properties of the ocean cucumber ( Ludwigothurea grisea ) are linked with the presence of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate in the soundbox wall of this marine animal. This compound has a chondroitin sulfate-like congress of racial equality containing side chains made up of sulfate α-L-fucose attached at Carbon-3 put of the β-D-glucuronic acid [ 127 ]. During trip partial thromboplast in meter assays ( APTT ), the given compound showed excellent anticoagulant activeness that could be ascribed to its capability to initiate thrombin inhibition by heparin cofactor II and antithrombin. Comparison between the results of chemically modified ( desulfated, carboxyl-reduced, and fond defucosylated ) and the master polysaccharides indicates that sulfated fucose side branches, play an important character in imparting better anticoagulant properties to fucosylated chondroitin sulfate ( FCS ). additionally, strong anticoagulant activity of FCS, coupled with possibly no side effects, makes this polysaccharide a capture molecule for electric potential applications in testing the experimental thrombosis on clinical level. Mulloy et aluminum. ( 2000 ) [ 135 ] investigated that ocean cucumber-isolated fucosylated chondroitin sulfate ( FCS ), being a kind of sulfate polysacchahers, has potent anticoagulant activity [ 122 ]. They used NMR spectroscopy to elucidate the structure of FSC. The leave demonstrated that anticoagulant activity of FSC chiefly depends on its sulfated fucose branches but a little alteration in determinant sulfate structure can cause passing of about all anticoagulant action, regardless of the being of high level of sulfation. In another survey [ 35 ], the researchers investigated the anticoagulant/antithrombotic action of sea cucumber body wall-derived FCS, and the chemical derivatives of the same polysaccharide, employing a stasis thrombosis model in rabbits. It has been found that both the fond defucosylation and desulfation of the polysaccharides suppressed their anticoagulant action. Some newly fractions have been produced from sea cucumber ( Thelenota ananas ) -derived fucosylated chondroitin sulfate by Wu et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 136 ] through a deploymerization procedure. The newly developed fractions, with varying but narrow molecular weight distribution, were characterized for their physicochemical characteristics using FT-IR and NMR spectral data. The results authenticated the primary structure of the fractions to be retained after the depolymerization. furthermore, the researchers tested the anticoagulant activeness of the fractions produced using the activated partial derivative thromboplast in time and found that APTT natural process decreased in a molecular weight pendent manner following a logarithmic-like officiate. In comparison to high doses of low-molecular weight heparin ( LMWH ) fraction, a more desirable molecular slant fraction ( 13,950 Da ) displayed lower anticoagulant action. Hence, the fraction showed more efficacy as an antithrombotic agent offering less bleeding risk relative to LMWH .
5.4. Anti-Fatigue and Immune Functions
Sea cucumber polypeptides have shown significant anti-fatigue and immune functions in shiner ; they exhibited no obvious effect on body weight in mouse, significantly prolonged the prison term of loaded-swimming and rolling stick, strongly degraded the content of lineage urea nitrogen and increased the capacity of hepatic glycogen of post exercise shiner [ 137, 138 ]. Liu et alabama. ( 2009 ) [ 139 ] studied the anti-fatigue and immune functions of sea cucumber oral liquid by determining the loading swim prison term and lineage lactic acidic and hepatic glycogen of mice. Their findings indicated that the liquid time of the mouse, administered with oral liquid, in comparison with the control group, was significantly prolonged thus increasing the liverwort glycogen subject ( P < 0.01 ). besides, after swimming in the screen group, a high dose of the oral melted, the rake lactic acidic content of the mouse was significantly decreased ( P < 0.01 ). The results supported that ocean cucumber oral melted has obtrusive anti-fatigue effect. The bioactives composition of civilized ocean cucumber ( Stichopus japonicus ) and its anti-fatigue effect in mice have been elucidated by Bing et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 140 ]. The body wall of S. japonicus was found to be ample in acidic mucopolysaccharides, collagen, bioactive amino acids and lipids. In comparison with the control group, administration with Stichopus japonicus, for 30 back-to-back days, prolonged the duration of exhaustive liquid in mouse, promoted the synthesis of liver-colored glycogen and hemoglobin and besides kept the level of hemoglobin ( 90 min post-swimming ) alike to that of before swimming. It besides significantly decreased the generation of blood lactic acidic and accelerated the elimination of blood lactic acerb and lineage urea nitrogen in shiner after swimming frankincense improving the practice survival in mouse. Based on these findings, it could be concluded that the trepang has an appreciable anti-fatigue activity .
5.5. Anti-Hypertension and Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibition
presently, ocean cucumbers are gaining recognition among researchers ascribable to their antihypertensive and ACE inhibitory principles. In a recent work, Zhao et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 75 ] investigated the antihypertensive impression and purified an ACE inhibitory peptide from ocean cucumber ( Acaudina molpadioidea ) gelatin hydrolysate. The gelatin was hydrolyzed consecutive with bromelain and alcalase. The hydrolysate was fractionated into three portions with distinctive molecular burden ranges ( GH-I, < 10 kDa ; GH-II, < 5 kDa ; GH-III, < 1 kDa ) using ultrafiltration membrane bioreactor ( UMB ). Among the products, the GH-III showed higher ACE inhibitory activity, IC50 0.35 mg/mL. When GH-III was used as drink administered to renal hypertensive rats ( RHR ) for one month, it significantly reduced the systolic blood coerce and diastolic blood coerce of RHR, indicating anti-hypertensive effect by oral administration. The researchers continued their sketch [ 141 ] further with the drive of preparing hydrolysate of Acaudina molpadioidea body wall protein with high anti-hypertensive bodily process. They hydrolyzed Acaudina molpadioidea soundbox wall protein, consecutive, with two enzymes namely bromelain and alcalase and then fractionated the hydrolysate obtained into components with distribution of molecular slant ( 2 kDa ; 2 kDa ) using UMBS. The fraction 2 kDa, with superior ACE inhibitory action ( IC50 of 0.615 mg/mL ) was used as drink administered to renal hypertensive rats ( RHR ) for 30 days. Both the systolic and diastolic rake pressures in RHR were well reduced compared with the model group in a dose-dependent manner. Besides, the anti-hypertensive effect, at dose of 120 μg/g, was angstrom good as for the positive control, captopril ( 10 μg/g ). Overall, it was noted that hydrolysate ( GH-III ) produced from sea cucumber gelatin has potent ACE inhibitory ( in vitro ) activity and anti-hypertensive ( in vivo ) effects which might have been due to presence of highly bioactive ACE inhibitory peptide. In another learn, Zhao et alabama. ( 2009 ) [ 142 ], isolated a fresh ACE inhibitory peptide from Acaudina molpadioidea hydrolysate. The hydrolysate produced was fractionated into two parts with molecular weight roll ( PH-I, > 2 kDa ; PH-II, < 2 kDa ) using an UMB. The PH-II divide showed higher ACE inhibitory likely. From this PH-II fraction, using assorted chromatographic techniques ( gel filtration, ion-exchange chromatography, RP-HPLC, etc. ), the researchers isolated an ACE inhibitory peptide. The peptide was promote purify and established to be a novel one ( sequenced as MEGAQEAQGD ), showing negligible resemblance with other ACE inhibitory peptide sequences. After incubation with gastrointestinal proteases, the inhibitory action of the newly characterized peptide was observed to be enhanced by 3.5 times, corresponding to decrease in IC50 from 15.9 to 4.5 μM. The test ACE inhibitory peptide at dose of 3 μM/kg demonstrated a remarkable anti-hypertensive effect in spontaneously hypertensive rats ( SHR ). The antihypertensive and antioxidant activities ( in-vitro ) of two differently processed Icelandic sea cucumber tissues were evaluated and compared by Hamaguchi et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 28 ]. The skin, muscle, digestive tract and respiratory tract of ocean cucumber ( Cucumaria frondosa ) were processed in different ways yielding aqueous infusion and hydrolyzates. The march sea cucumber products were tested for reducing office, metallic element ion chelate natural process, and ACE activity. According to the results, aqueous extracts, demonstrated higher ACE inhibition compared to the hydrolysates. unlike parts of the test sea cucumber besides demonstrated varying magnitude of activities. On the other pass, hydrolysates ( summons 2 ) showed higher ORAC ( oxygen radical optical density capacity ) values than the aqueous extracts ( process 1 ). They suggested that the higher antioxidative activities of hydrolysates over aqueous extracted samples might be attributed to the presence of antioxidative peptides in accession to other endogenous bioactives in the former casing .
5.6. Anti-Inflammatory
Studies support that sea cucumber possesses potent anti-inflammatory natural process. According to Smith ( 1978 ) [ 143 ], polian vesicles of sea cucumber ( Holothuria cinerascens ) are known to be the organs attributing incendiary ( including immunological ) receptiveness. As such, they might stand for a fundamental startle of what afterwards progressed into the vertebrate lymphoreticular arrangement. There are besides several patents which reveal that tissue fractions of sea cucumber can be exploited as a source of potent remedy agents for the treatment of inflammation [ 29 – 31 ]. In an in vivo learn, Whitehouse and Fairlie ( 1994 ) [ 144 ] fed the rats of both ( male and female ) sexes with SeaCare ( a human food supplement ) composition of dry extracts from selected species of holothurians : 95 % w/w sea cucumbers ( Holothuria nobilis, Holothuria axiologa and Stichopus variegatus ) and 5 % w/w sea implant ( Sargassum pallidum ). The anti-inflammatory attributes were tested in rat models of inflammation. Their results indicate that the test supplement exhibits anti-inflammatory action in both the sexes of rats ; however its action is slightly lower than the synthetic standard intensify ( aspirin w/w ) against the acute carrageenan-induced hand ignition. The food accessory was found to be active voice against adjuvant-induced polyarthritis in rats on a casual dose schedule. Extracts from ocean cucumber species : ( Holothuria tubulosa, Leptogorgia ceratophyta, Coscinasterias tenuispina and Phallusia fumigata ) have been produced using methylene chloride and methanol by Herencia et alabama. ( 1998 ) [ 145 ] to assess their anti-inflammatory activeness. The results showed that the extracts, produced with both the solvents, were effective towards decreasing cyclo-oxygenase activeness in inflame mouse tissues but did not modify the constituent cyclo-oxygenase enzyme. therefore, the tested extracts can be explored as a new marine source for novel anti-inflammatory agents .
5.7. Antimicrobial
Sea cucumber extracts have been proven as likely disinfectant agents in several studies. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of alcoholic extracts of Actinopyga echinites, Actinopyga miliaris, Holothuria atra and Holothuria scabra have been studied by Jawahar et alabama. ( 2002 ) [ 121 ]. The researchers found that except Bacillus sp., other strains namely Escherichia coli, Aeromonas hydrophila, Enterococcus sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, and Vibrio harveyi, and fish-generated Aspergillus sp. were sensible to the tested sea cucumber extracts. The disinfectant potential of these extracts can be ascribed to the presence of antimicrobial agents, most probably, the steroidal sapogenins. consequently, uses of ocean cucumbers, as electric potential source, for isolation of antimicrobial agents can be suggested. In another study, Ridzwan et alabama. ( 1995 ) [ 146 ] evaluated the antibacterial activity of the extracts from sea cucumbers harvested from coastal areas of Sabah ( Malaysia ) using in vitro tests. According to their results, both the extracts, the lipid fraction and methanol fraction, derived from sea cucumber species, Holothuria scabra, Holothuria atra and Bohadshia argus did not show considerable antibacterial action. however, PBS ( phosphate-buffered saline ) derived from B. argus and H. atra, exhibited significant antimicrobial natural process and inhibited the growth of all the tested gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. The extracts obtained from the knocked out part of Holothuria atra, compared to inner parts, showed decrepit antimicrobial action. disinfectant natural process of the extracts from different body parts of ocean cucumber, ( Cucumaria frondosa ), the common starfish ( Asterias rubens ), and green ocean urchin ( Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis ) has been examined by Haug et alabama. [ 147 ]. The eggs from Cucumaria frondosa offered relatively higher antibacterial activity. respective tissues from A. rubens exhibited lysozyme-like action, whereas hemolytic activity being observed in about all the species analyzed. specially, the body wall has more brawny extracts. A wide-eyed variation of bioactivities among the extracts suggests that a variety of substances are capable of antimicrobial functionalities. therefore, marine echinoderms can be explored as a sustainable natural reference for the discovery of novel antibiotic compounds. In another action guided research by Kumar et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 148 ], methanol extract of ocean cucumber ( Actinopyga lecanora ) showed bright antifungal activeness, in vitro. A new triterpene glycoside, along with two know glycosides, named holothurin B and holothurin A, have been identified in n-butanol fractions using repeat column chromatographic fractionation action. Overall, holothurin B showed better in vitro antifungal natural process against 20 fungal isolates tested including the breed ATCC. Sea cucumber ( Actinopyga lecanora ) -based natural products have been recognized to act as a promise source for isolation and identification of fungicidal substances. consequently, sea cucumber-derived holothurin B could be searched as a lead molecule for far development of a potent antifungal drug against infectious diseases. Farouk et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 149 ] isolated some bacterial strains from versatile tissues of the sea cucumber species, ( Holothuria atra ). The bacterial secretions and extracts showed an interesting antibacterial activeness. Out of the thirty strains isolated, seven strains exhibited modest to high natural process. Researchers besides optimized the increase media to enhance the production of antibacterial peptides. Based on activeness screening data, the species namely Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, Proteus vulgaris and Escherichia coli were found to be the most sensible organisms. The petroleum extracts and pure fractions isolated from Holothuria polii ( a Mediterranean ocean cucumber ), have shown concentration-dependent antifungal activity against some molds and yeasts as described by Ismail et alabama. ( 2008 ) [ 150 ]. According to the datum generated, the strains of Aspergillus fumigatus were more sensitive to the tested fractions and extracts, whereas those from Trichophyton rubrum were less responsive. Besides the extracts, different bioactive compounds, most of them known as triterpene glycosides, have been isolated from ocean cucumber offering antimicrobial activeness. One of these bioactives, namely patagonicoside A, isolated from sea cucumber ( Psolus patagonicus ) [ 118 ], is identified as disulfated tetrasaccharide using 1D and 2D NMR apparitional information. furthermore, it is reported that patagonicoside A has good antifungal activeness against infective fungus ( Cladosporium cucumerinum ). Two newly identified sulfated triterpene glycosides, Hemoiedemosides A and B, from the Patagonian sea cucumber ( Hemoiedema spectabilis ) exhibited considerable antifungal bodily process against phytopathogenic fungus ( Cladosporium cucumerinum ), while the semi-synthetic desulfated derived function hemoiedemosides A was relatively less active [ 151 ]. Some secondary metabolites, characterized as triterpene glycosides, from sea cucumber ( Psolus patagonicus ) using a combination of chemical and chromatographic techniques have offered considerable antifungal potential. The purify fractions, by and large comprising of patagonicoside A, showed stronger fungicidal action. In comparison with an effective synthetic antifungal product, ocean cucumber-derived patagonicoside A and its derivative instrument, for example, desulfated glycoside ( ds-patagonicoside A ), has comparable fungicidal action against molds, Fusarium oxysporum, Cladosporium fulvum, and Monilia sp. [ 152 ]. yuan et alabama. ( 2009 ) [ 153 ] besides reported antifungal activity of four newly identified holostan-type triterpene glycosides, 17α-hydroxy impatienside A, marmoratoside A, marmoratoside B, 25-acetoxy bivittoside D, together with two previously known triterpene glycosides, ( impatienside A and bivittoside D ), isolated from ( Bohadschia marmorata ) species of ocean cucumber. They elucidated the structures of the new triterpene glycosides using spectroscopic data, produced by planar NMR ( 2-D NMR ) and other biochemical methods. now the egress of electric resistance of bacteria to normally used synthetic disinfectant ( antibacterial and fungicidal ) drugs as a consequence of long-run drug therapy is a common phenomenon. Based upon the disinfectant electric potential as revealed by several studies, it would be interesting to explore sea cucumbers as a natural informant for isolation of novel disinfectant agents for drug development against infectious diseases .
5.8. Antioxidant
presently, use of plants or marine-based natural antioxidant compounds has gained much recognition due to their likely health functions and multiple biological properties. Thousands of plants species have already been researched for potential antioxidants ; however due to lack of exploration, a lot potential remains for screening marine organisms for their antioxidant principles [ 4, 6 ]. Sea cucumber is one of the marine organisms that can be explored as a potential reservoir of valuable antioxidants [ 34 ]. The antioxidant potential of fresh and rehydrated sea cucumber ( Cucumaria frondosa ) with/without internal organs has been evaluated by Zhong et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 154 ]. The test ocean cucumber exhibited radicals scavenging properties. The rehydrated samples, specially those with inner organs, possessed higher antioxidant action than their fresh counterparts. According to the findings of this study, poor correlation existed between revolutionary scavenge capacity and total phenolics content, suggesting that other components, in addition to phenolic compounds, could have contributed to the antioxidant activeness of sea cucumber. meanwhile, Zeng et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 155 ] reported the antioxidant bodily process of gelatin hyrolysates from sea cucumber, ( Paracaudina chilensis ). In this study the gelatin was hydrolyzed by bromelain and then using ultrafiltration membrane separated into two major molecular system of weights fractions ( greater than and less than 5 kDa ). The hydrolysates tested scavenged the superoxide anion radicals to significant level. A rabbit liver-colored mitochondrial free radical damage model was used for in vivo action trials. Owing to reasonable radical scavenging likely, ocean cucumber gelatin hydrolysate prevented the damage of rabbit liver-colored and mitochondrion. The antioxidant bodily process of sea cucumber-derived peptides has been confirmed by Chenghui et aluminum. ( 2007 ) [ 156 ]. They separated sea cucumber hydrolysate into different molecular weight fractions by the methods of ultrafiltration and freeze-drying. The results showed that peptides, with molecular system of weights of 1000~3000 u, exhibited greater antioxidant and scavenging impression on DPPH, even higher than the convinced restraint, Vitamin E. total phenolics and sum flavonoids contents, and antioxidant activity of the extracts from different parts of Atlantic sea cucumber ( Cucumaria frondosa ) have been assessed by Mamelona et alabama. ( 2007 ) [ 46 ]. Of the quiz extracts, ethyl acetate-extracted components, belonging to digestive tract, showed relatively higher antioxidant action, while water extracts derived from digestive tract and respiratory apparatus have the least. A good correlation existed between the data of ORAC ( oxygen extremist optical density capacitance ) and total phenolic resin contents of the extracts/fractions of muscles and gonads. similarly, ORAC and full flavonoids data showed good correlation ( p < 0.05 ) in all experiments. The results of this report showed that C. frondosa tissues contained relatively higher levels of natural antioxidants and can be used to prevent lipid oxidation reactions, particularly those initiated by free radicals and reactive oxygen species. Hence, sea cucumbers can be a useful natural source for dietary antioxidants. In another probe, the antioxidant bodily process and nutritional typography of protein hydrolysates from Atlantic sea-based freez-dried sea cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, has been demonstrated [ 157 ]. The hydrolysates tested contained high level of protein ( 55 % ), and substantive amino acids ( 35 % of sum amino acids ) along with an impressive nitrogen solubility index ( 68 % ). The hydrolysates besides indicated meaning antioxidant efficacy in both ORAC ( 267–421 μmol TE/g ) and inhibition of lipid oxidation ( 54–57 % ) assays, which might be linked to the presence of antioxidant peptides. Atlantic sea-based species of sea cucumber and green sea urchin byproducts could be used as a informant of dietary proteins, with potential antioxidant peptides. A polypeptide isolated from sea cucumber through ultrafiltration and freeze-drying methods exhibited effective antioxidant bodily process when tested on the hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals [ 158 ]. similarly, the antiproliferative and in vitro antioxidant properties of organic press out ( OE ) and aqueous extract ( AE ) from sea cucumbers, Holothuria leucospilota, Holothuria scabra and Stichopus chloronotus have been examined by Althunibat et alabama. ( 2009 ) [ 34 ]. The results indicate that AE of H. leucospilota has the highest amount of full phenolics ( 9.70 magnesium GAE/g educe ), while the OE of H. scabra contained the least ( 1.53 magnesium GAE/g excerpt ). besides the AE of S. chloronotus scavenged DPPH rid root ( IC50 = 2.13 mg/mL ) more effectively while AE ( 50 mg/mL ) from H. scabra, H. leucospilota and S. chloronotus exhibited superscript antioxidant bodily process ( 77.46 %, 64.03 % and 80.58 %, respectively ) in terms of linoleic acidic peroxidation. A wide pas seul of antioxidant components and activities among the analyze sea cucumber species, have been recorded. relatively, AE have shown better antioxidant attributes than the OE, supporting that majority of the ocean cucumber antioxidant components might have been hydrophilic in nature. It is apprehensible that the quiz ocean cucumber species can be employed as a useful informant for isolation of natural antioxidant and anticancer agents. According to research work by Wang et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 159 ], a gelatin hydrolysate with molecular weight, 700–1700 Da, prepared from sea cucumber ( Stichopus japonicus ) soundbox wall, scavenged the superoxide and hydroxyl radicals in a concentration-dependent manner. The tested gelatin hydrolysate besides showed very dear inhibitory effect against melanin deduction and tyrosinase natural process in B16 cells. In a similar study Huihui et alabama. ( 2010 ) [ 160 ] evaluated the free revolutionary scavenging ability of functional polypeptides of sea cucumber ( Acaudina molpadioides ), produced through optimized enzymatic hydrolysis process. In this discipline more than 70 % of the exempt radicals were scavenged, IC50 value for scavenging hydroxyl and superoxide anion loose radicals were 27.8 mg/mL, 49.3 mg/mL, respectively. Peptides with molecular weight distribution less than 5 kDa exhibited greater ability to scavenge the free radicals. Besides, there are besides early studies which demonstrate that the coelomic fluid from ocean cucumber is a full source of antioxidants [ 161, 162 ] .
5.9. Anti-Thrombotic
A singular sulfate polysaccharide, extracted from ocean cucumber ( Leptopentacta grisea ) body wall has been found to be a solid inhibitor of both P- and L-selectins [ 126 ]. This learn besides supports the findings of a former work by Zancan and Mourao ( 2004 ) [ 163 ], that the sulfated fucose branches are required for the anticoagulant and antithrombotic activities of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate ( FucCS ). The antithrombotic and anticoagulant activities of depolymerized break up ( DHG ) of glycosaminoglycan extracted from sea cucumber ( Stichopus japonica ) ( FGAG ) have been compared with those of unfractionated heparin ( UFH ) or low molecular weight unit heparin ( LMWH ) by Suzuki et aluminum. ( 1991 ) [ 164 ]. DHG at levels greater than 0.3 mg/kg i.v. significantly prevented the death of mice treated with thrombin ( 800 U/kg i.v. ). Under the lapp conditions, FGAG, UFH and LMWH prevented the death of shiner at dose higher than 0.3, 0.3 and 0.6 mg/kg i.v., respectively. These results suggest that sea cucumber-derived DHG-1 is a promising antithrombotic agent having quite different anticoagulant place from that of UFH or LMWH. Another study by Li et alabama. ( 2000 ) [ 165 ] revealed the antithrombotic effects of sea cucumber-derived glycosaminoglycan ( GAG ). In this experiment, the effect of GAG on the factors such as fabrication, dispersion, and fibrin gel structure and functionality of plasmin was appraised with the care of electron microscopic and biochemical and chromogenic assays. Besides, the influences of GAG saying and transcription of tissue component and thrombomodulin in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells ( HUVECs ) were besides observed. The results of this cogitation unwrap that the routine of GAG is analogous to dermatan sulfate, both in terms of efficacy and mechanism of antithrombin. furthermore, it has been shown that coltlysis by GAG is controlled by its capacitance to enhance plasmin activity, in order to inhibit the polymerization of fibrin monomer, consequently altering the fibrin network architecture. It can be claimed that such an effect on HUVECs materializes at a transcriptional flat and thus might be creditworthy for the antithrombotic attributes of GAG. The findings of this study suggest that sea cucumber-derived GAG possesses anticoagulant bodily process in vivo and can be used as a predict drug for antithrombotic therapy .
5.10. Antitumor
Sea cucumbers contain a kind of anti-tumor ingredients. These anti-tumor active components play important roles in unlike stages of tumor development, progress and metastasis. The exploration of anti-tumor active ingredients from sea cucumbers might open windows of opportunities to discover fresh anticancer agents from early nautical sources for clinical tumor treatment [ 166 ]. Triterpene glycosides, namely holothurinosides A, B, C and D ampere well as desholothurin adenine from sea cucumber ( Holothuria forskali ), have considerable anticancer activity [ 167 ]. Holothurinosides A and B are the first non-sulfated pentasaccharide saponins isolated from marine echinoderms while C and D are the di and tetrasaccharides. Sea cucumber-derived holothurinosides A–D and the related saponin have shown anticancer and antiviral activities. Holothurinosides A and desholothurin A are the most effective with IC50 values of 0.46 and 0.38 mg/mL, respectively against P388 cell lines. similarly, five raw saponins ( holothurinosides A–D ) isolated from the aqueous-methanolic distill of sea cucumber ( Holothuria forskali ) have besides offered considerable anticancer and antiviral activities. According to another research report [ 120 ], the glycoproteins obtained from the body wall of sea cucumber ( Mensamaria intercedens ) could significantly inhibit the emergence of Sarcoma 180 cells implanted subcutaneously in shiner ( phosphorus = 0.05 ) at dose of 20–30 mg/kg per day ×10 with no sign of toxicity. Six newly isolated triterpene glycosides, intercedensides D–I, from the unharmed torso of ocean cucumber ( Mensamria intercedens ), have shown full anticancer activeness [ 37 ]. Chemical and spectroscopic ( NMR and ESIMS ) structural clarification demonstrated that intercedensides D, E, G, and H have conjugated double bail system ( 22Z,24-diene ) in the aglycon side chain, while intercedensides F and I, contained lone a single double bail in the lapp range. Lntercedensides D–H has displayed well high cytotoxicity ( ED50 0.96–5.0 mg/mL ) against homo tumor cell lines. The effect of philinopside A, a fresh sulfated saponin derived from sea cucumber ( Pentacta quadrangulari ) on the angiogenesis and tumor growth have been studied by Tong et aluminum. ( 2005 ) [ 38 ] using different in vitro and in vivo models. The results revealed that philinopside A has high anti-tumor natural process in both the in vivo and in vitro trials. According to Ogushi et alabama. ( 2006 ) [ 168 ], when human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells were exposed to hot body of water excerpt of ocean cucumber ( Stichopus japonicus ), certain morphologic changes occurred in the extract-treated cells. The researchers in this study demonstrated the induction of apoptosis using phosphatidylserine translocation ( APO Percentage Assay kit out ), terminal deoxynucleotide transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick-end pronounce ( TUNEL ), and DNA atomization as DNA ladder. The data showed that apoptosis is induced by a high molecular burden fraction in a venereal disease dependent manner. It could be predicted that body of water extracted ( water-soluble ) and higher molecular slant compounds of sea cucumber might exhibit anti-tumor bodily process by triggering apoptosis, and the apoptosis-inducing activeness may contribute to cancer chemopreventive effects of sea cucumber. In another experiment conducted by Zhang et alabama. ( 2006 ) [ 105 ], active n-BuOH extract of ocean cucumber, ( Holothuria fuscocinerea ) was fractionated resulting in isolation of three new triterpene glycosides, fuscocinerosides A, B, and C, along with two know glycosides, pervicoside C and holothurin A. Structural elucidation, using spectral and chemical data showed that all the compounds possessed the lapp tetrasaccharide moiety, 3-O-methyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl- ( 1→3 ) -β-D-glucopyranosyl- ( 1→4 ) -β-D-quinovopyranosyl- ( 1→2 ) -4-O-sodiumsulfato-β-D-xylopyranosyl, linked to C-3 of holostane triterpene aglycones that differed in their side chains and 17-substituents. All the tested glycosides exhibited considerable cytotoxicity in vitro against homo tumor cellular telephone lines [ 99 ]. Wu et aluminum. ( 2006 ) [ 169 ], elucidated the social organization of three newly isolated triterpene glycosides ( nobilisides A, B and C ) from sea cucumber, ( Holothuria nobilis ). assorted apparitional and chemical analyses were performed to deduce the chemical structures of the compounds isolated. Their results revealed that compounds A and C are non-sulfated monoglycosides while B is a sulfate diglycoside. All the three glycosides exhibited noteworthy cytotoxic effects against homo tumor cells. In their next study [ 170 ], they identified hillasides A and B, as new triterpene glycosides, in ocean cucumber ( Holothuria hilla ) along with a previously known glycoside, holothuria B. They found that happening of conjugate double bonds [ 22E,24-diene ] in the aglycone of hillasides A is a unique structural feature among ocean cucumber glycosides. Both of the newly identified glycosides showed appreciable cytotoxic potential against tumor cellular telephone lines in human. recently, a new cytotoxic lanostane-type triterpene glycoside from the ocean cucumber ( Holothuria impatiens ) has been isolated and structurally identified [ 171 ]. The newly elucidated compound showed in vitro cytotoxicity, even better than that of an anticancer drug etoposide ( V-16 ) against seven homo tumor cells. In a recent investigation, Lu et alabama. ( 2009 ) [ 122 ] evaluated the anticancer activity of Stichopus japonicus acid ingredients mucopolysaccharide ( SJAMP ) involving animal experimental trials. Their results revealed SJAMP to be a electric potential anticancer agent. SJAMP is one of the significant biologically active compounds identified in ocean cucumber, ( Stichopus japonica ). Based on the facts, sea cucumbers can be recommended as a medicated food with remedy functions during and after the treatment of certain tumors. Aminin et aluminum. ( 2010 ) [ 42 ] identified a newly immunomodulatory spark advance compound, cumaside from ocean cucumber ( Cucumaria japonica ). Chemically, cumaside is a building complex of monosulfated triterpene glycosides and reveals antitumor activity against experimental mouse Ehrlich carcinoma in vivo [ 42 ] .
5.11. Antiviral
There are evidences that ocean cucumbers bioactives besides have antiviral activity. The antiviral bodily process of Liouvillosides A and B, which are trisulfated triterpene glycosides, isolated from Antarctic sea cucumber ( Staurocucumis liouvillei ), have been examined by Maier et alabama. ( 2001 ) [ 117 ]. Based on the results of activity-directed bioassays, both glycosides showed well antiviral natural process against herpes simplex virus type 1 ( HSV-1 ). Sea cucumber-derived fucosylated chondroitin sulfates ( FCS ), recognized as a type of sulfate polysacchahers [ 35, 135 ], can inhibit homo immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) infection, thus suggesting potential utilization of these valuable marine invertebrates as a natural therapy against HIV disorders and AIDS ( acquired immune lack syndrome ) [ 88, 89 ].
5.12. Osteoarthritis
It is revealed that certain chemical compounds namely chondroitin, mucopolysaccharides and glucosamine, occurring in sea cucumbers, have beneficial effects in arthritis disorders. Researchers have shown that use of ocean cucumber is beneficial in maintaining prostaglandins balance thus helping out in the treatment of musculo-skeletal inflammatory disorders such as osteoarthritis, arthritic arthritis and spinal arthritis [ 85 – 87 ]. Two types of fucan sulfates have been isolated from ocean cucumber ( Stichopus japonicus ) body wall using chloroform/methanol solution system. Both types of fucan sulfates tested inhibited the osteoclastogenesis in an in vitro assay. This suggests that these compounds derived from sea cucumber are strong inhibitors of osteoclastogenesis [ 85 ]. Therefore, ocean cucumber-derived chondroitin sulfate and early relate marine compounds can be a utilitarian folk music remedy for curing joint-pain and arthritis. The inhalation of dried sea cucumber is medicinally effective in suppressing arthralgia [ 85 – 87 ] .
5.13. Wound Healing
Sea cucumber and ocean cucumber-based products are immediately becoming available in shelves of health food stores due to their remedy effects, in particular the weave healing functions ( to speed convalescence of sores, cuts and wounds on the peel, angstrom well as internally for ulcers and other ailments that involve internal damage ). It is believed that direct function of sea cucumber can reduce wound recovery time and help newfangled weave geological formation and positive feedback in human fair as the sea cucumber ’ s ability to promptly regenerate its own body tissue when damaged [ 53, 172, 173 ]. It is discernible that sea cucumber ( Stichopus chloronotus ) fatso acids including arachidonic acidic ( AA C20:4 ), eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA C20:5 ), and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA C22:6 ) can play a likely role in weave repair and injure mend [ 9, 77 ]. It has been revealed in the literature that the bottom sediment eater ocean cucumber can contain high contents of branched chain fatty acids ( BCFA ) to assist in the electric potential wound healing action [ 9 ]. An appreciable total of EPA in ocean cucumbers [ 9, 23, 77 ] might be linked well with the ability of these echinoderms to initiate tissue rectify. EPA is known to be the main active agent intensify in fish oils, and exerts its serve by means of prostaglandin inhibition and anti-thrombic property. Besides, EPA besides plays a potential function in the mechanism of blood-clotting [ 77, 80, 81 ] .
5.14. Other Properties
Besides, the pharmacological and therapeutic attributes described above, there are other studies which revealed that sea cucumbers have far likely biological properties such as antihistamine [ 174 ], analgesic anti-anaphylactic [ 174, 175 ], antinocieptive [ 176, 177 ] and antileishmanial [ 178 ]. For case, after the intake of sea cucumber pellet, histamine-induced anaphylactic daze guinea pigs showed a decrease of anaphylaxis [ 174 ]. Extracts from selected sea cucumber ( Stichopus sp. ), revealed potential analgesic activity [ 7, 174, 175 ]. Ridzwan et alabama. ( 2001 ) [ 176 ] and Ridzwan et aluminum. ( 2003 ) [ 177 ] investigated that water extracts from sea cucumbers ( Holothuria leucospilota, Bohadschia marmorata and Bohadschia vitiensis ) equally well as the coelomic fluent from Stichopus hermanii have antinociceptive consequence in mouse. In another study [ 178 ], methanol distill and n-butanol fraction of sea cucumber ( Actinopyga lecanora ) exhibited excellent Leishmania donovani inhibition activity in vitro and in vivo suggesting the uses of these multipurpose marine invertebrates as platform for the development of antileishmanial drugs from some early likely marine resources. Some crucial pharmacological and medicative properties of ocean cucumbers-derived bioactives are presented in .
Table 4
| Sea cucumber species | Bioactive compounds | Pharmacologica/medicinal activity | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pentacta quadrangularius, Cucumaria frondosa | Sulfated saponin [Philinospide A], Philinospide E (PE), Sea cucumber fractions: B1000 and Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate | Antiangiogenic | [24,38,130] |
| Holothuria scabra, Holothurialeucos pilota, Stichopus chloronotus, Cucumaria frondosa, Cucumaria okhotensis, Mensamaria intercedens, Pearsonothuria graeffei, Stichopus japonicus, Stichopus variegates | Triterpenoid [Frondoside A], Triterpene oligoglycosides [Okhotosides B1, B2, and B3], Triterpene glycosides [Intercedensides A, B, and C], Glycolipid [Frondanol A], Triterpene oligoglycosides [Holothurin A and 24-dehydroechinoside], Frondanol(R)-A5p, sphingoid base composition of cerebrosides | Anticancer | [34,37,48,124,131–134] |
| Ludwigothurea grisea, Thelenota ananas | Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate, Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate | Anticoagulant | [127,135,136] |
| Stichopus japonicas | Low molecular weight polypeptides, Polypeptides Acidic mucopolysaccharides, collagen and bioactive amino acids (all together) | Anti-fatigue | [137–140] |
| Actinopyga echinites, Actinopyga miliari, Holothuria atra, Holothuria scabra, Bohadshia argus, Cucumaria frondosa, Holothuria poli, Hemoiedema spectabilis, Psolus patagonicus, Actinopyga lecanora, Holothuria atra, Psolus patagonicus, Bohadschia marmorata, Cucumaria frondosa | Steroidal sapogenins, (Phosphate-buffered saline [PBS]), Sulfated triterpene glycosides [Hemoiedemosides A and B], Triterpene glycoside [patagonicoside A], Triterpene glycoside [holothurin B (saponin)], Triterpene glycoside [patagonicoside A], Holostan-type triterpene glycosides [marmoratoside A, 17α-hydroxy impatienside A, impatienside A and bivittoside D], Bioactive peptides | Antimicrobial Antibacterial and antifungal |
[32,118,121,146–153] |
| Cucumariafrondosa, Stichopus japonicus, Paracaudina chilensis, Cucumaria frondosa, Cucumaria frondosa, Holothuria scabra, Holothuria leucospilota, Stichopus chloronotus, Acaudina molpadioides | Gelatin hydrolysate, Gelatin hydrolysate, Protein hydrolysate [bioactive peptides], Bioactive peptides, Phenols and flavonoids, Phenols, Gelatin hydrolysate [Bioactive peptides], Collagen polypeptides | Antioxidation | [34,46,154–160] |
| Stichopus japonicas | Glycosaminoglycan, Holothurian glycosaminoglycan | Antithrombotic | [126,163–165] |
| Mensamaria intercedens, Mensamaria intercedens, Holothuria hilla, Pentacta quadrangularis, Holothuria forskali, Stichopus japonicus, Holothuria nobilis, Holothuria fuscocinerea, Stichopus japonicus, Holothuria impatiens, Ludwigothurea grisea, Cucumaria japonica | Triterpene glycosides, [intercedensides D–I], Glycoprotein (GPMI I), Triterpene glycosides [hillasides A and B], Sulfated saponins [Philinopside A], Triterpene glycosides [holothurinosides A, B, C and D; and desholothurin A], Mucopolysaccharide (SJAMP), Triterpene glycosides [nobilisides A, B and C], Triterpene glycosides [fuscocinerosides A, B, and C], Monosulfated triterpene glycosides, Lanostane-type triterpene glycoside [impatienside A], Sulfated polysaccharide, Monosulfated triterpene glycosides [cumaside] | Antitumour | [37,38,42,120,122,166–171] |
| Staurocucumis liouvillei | Trisulfated triterpene glycosides [liouvillosides A and B] | Antiviral | [117] |
| Stichopus japonicas | Fucan sulfate, Glucosamin, Chondroitin | Osteoarthritis | [85] |
| Thyone briareus, Stichopus chloronotus, Stichopus herrmanni, Thelenota ananas, Thelenota anax, Holothuria fuscogilva, Holothuria fuscopunctata, Actinopyga mauritiana, Actinopyga caerulea, Bohadschia argus, Stichopus chloronotus, Holothuria tubulosa, Holothuria polii, Holothuria mammata | Polyunsaturated fatty acids, (arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid ) | Wound healing | [9,23,77–79,172] |
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